Aspects of Modernism in Ibsen's A Doll's House, Brecht's Galileo and Garnad's The Dreams of Tipu Sultan

 

A tragic comedy is a fictitious work. It contains both elements of tragedy and comedy at the same time. For example, sometimes there may be a happy ending at the end of a series of disastrous events. Usually, the characters that are in a tragic comedy have inflated personalities. Tragic comedies often combine jokes throughout the story as well in order to lighten the mood of the story.
Modernism
Modernism is an era in literary history that started nearby the early 1900s and continued until the early 1940s. Modernist writers in general fought against clear-cut storytelling and methodic verse from the 19th century. Instead, many of them told fragmented stories which reflected the fragmented state of society during and after World War I.
 Modernism is also used to discuss literary movements of other than the European and American movements of the early to the mid-20th century.
 A Doll’s House
A Doll’s House is a masterpiece written by Henrik Ibsen. It is the first full-blown example of modernism. It is a thought-provoking and insightful play because it boldly certifies modernist philosophies even at a time when romanticism was still common in theatre. Ibsen sets the pattern for other dramatists because he is a realist, backs socialism, and uses melodrama to write this play.
Modernist approaches, thoughts, and theories in A Doll’s House;
         In “A doll’s house”, one of the outstanding depictions of this way of thinking was seen at the end of the play; in other words, the overall plot of the story has been used to publicize modernism.  Moreover, in the play, Ibsen is essentially questioning societal rules or the status quo. The main character was willing to take her own life so that she could save her husband’s status but soon finds out that he was nothing more than self-centered and self-loving.
He understated her great sacrifices and even told her that she was like a child in his eyes. Nora, therefore, gains awareness of his true character and decides that it is useless to continue living with him. Nora was daring enough to question her community’s norms and even took it to the point of leaving her partner (Ibsen, 58).
This unpredicted twist at the end of the play makes it very modern because it is considered the institution of marriage, gender roles, and family duties in a whole new light. It should be noted
that in the previous period of romanticism, such a play would have ended in reconciliation between Nora and Torvald, “but Ibsen was a realist and a modernist”.
Ibsen wanted to have an unpredictable plot that would leave audiences unclear but encouraged about the future of the main character. No heroes were brought in to save the day and this definitely broke from usual theatre endings. The aspect of modernism that comes out in this case is melodrama.
Another way in which he uses plot in order to circulate modernist thought is through the structure of the play. At the time of Ibsen, most versions of well-made plays started with an account of the characters in the play.
His modernist approaches have been seen in the first part and also in the second part. In the second part, he would often present a dilemma or tangled situation faced by the main character. After that, the play would end by reacting to the dilemma and later teaching the audience a moral lesson.
But, through a Doll’s house, Ibsen created a different structure. He has a portrayal of a dilemma but lacks a resolution. He ends the play with an argument on what will go on and therefore leaves audiences questioning what will happen to the main characters even as time proceeds.
The author also uses themes to advance the modernist approach. In Ibsen’s time, women had no voice; this was realized by the fact that most of them had to get the signature of a male family member in order to carry out any financial transactions. But, Ibsen makes these women the centerpiece of his play.
Ibsen highlights how they make up for men’s failures (such as pride, rashness, and selfishness) through their sympathy, self-sacrifice, and their loyalty. Nora is everything that Torvald is not and this definitely represented a new element in modern drama. Not only was Ibsen bold enough to portray women very responsibly, but he did this in a delicate manner that makes Nora appear real.
Self-duty is another main aspect of modernism. During his time, individuals were expected to stay trustworthy to their leaders and to their society in common.
But Henrik was a realist or humanist and desired to show how this approach was unfair. Nora, the key character, had been putting the wants and opinions of others before herself. The overall result of this was that she led a frustrated life. Moreover, men kept using that selflessness to their advantage and this only led to her grief and misery.
“Character is a central stylistic device used to explain modernist thought. At the time when a Doll’s house was written, many other plays would depict the central character as this dominant male figure that appeared to have all the solutions to the problems in the play”.
So, Ibsen breaks from this convention and portrays what should have been older and socially responsible. He does not portray his characters in a classic or typical manner. Ibsen does not want to glorify any one of them; an aspect that was typical of the realist school of thought.
“Marxism as a form of modernism can also be grasped in the play through the main character of the play. Prior to this creation, aristocrats often carried the day”.
They organized wealth and were allowed several rights. This generally meant that the middle and lower classes would pay the price for these rights. In other words, capitalism preferred the rich and oppressed the poor.
But Ibsen gives a new perspective here when he decides not to tell the story of yet another elite. He exposes the struggles of a middle-class woman – Nora and also talks about the struggles of another female Mrs. Linde. Linde came from a poor family that required the basics of life. She chose to marry someone she did not love just so that she could overcome the problems of her class.
Ibsen also highlighted the evils of capitalism. It exposes the evils of capitalism and therefore circulates classic Marxist thought or modernism in its real colors.                                                    
 In the end, we may say that Ibsen uses quite a unique theme to expose class struggles and the problems of romanticism. He is also initiating a discussion on Marxism. He uses the plot to advance realist thought through the uncertain or confusing ending of the story.
The character also plays a key role because he rebels against traditional depictions of males and females in his story. His choice of a female as a central character testifies to this modernist aspect. Also, his depiction of complex individuals makes his work truthful. In the end, he sets the stage for a new and revolutionary way of writing plays and looking at life in society.

The Dreams of Tipu Sultan

Girish Karnad is one of the most outstanding dramatic geniuses of the post-Independence period. His masterpiece The Dreams of Tipu Sultan is a very famous and historical play. This play is a true effort of Karnad for eliminating all the fiction and misinterpretation or misunderstanding about the ‘cursed hero’ of Indian history – Tipu Sultan. In fact, this play saves him as a modernizing ruler whose mind was nervous with high ideas, hopes, projects, missions, and visions that he desires to use for the renaissance of his subjects.
Modernity aspects in the play     
Tipu is a representative of modernity and his modern attitude. Karnad calls this great man with a new perspective who was, truly, far ahead of his age. This play is not a simple record of the historical account of Tipu’s inner life but it is a depiction of his innovative, radical, and progressive ideas which seriously subjective social, political, economic, and religious aspects of his age, with his own personal life.
Due to these aspects, this play is considered modern play;
The first aspect is the education of children. Tipu knew the importance of education; therefore, he was very observant about it, mostly about his own children’s education. He demonstrated the importance of education with his father – Haider Ali’s example, who was uneducated, and foul-mouthed and that was sufficient for him to rule. But his son Fath Haider belongs to different and challenging age which was full of difficulties and complications. So, Tipu considers that his son must prepare himself for a different life and world and it could be possible only through education. He knew, that “education can bring fundamental change in one’s life. In fact, he wanted to develop his children’s minds with progressive and enlightened thoughts with the experience of practical things and education. No doubt, he wanted to train them to make strong, knowledgeable, and experienced...So, this approach of Tipu is, categorically, a modern one. Tipu stated, “It’s time they started learning about the world” (Karnad, Girish: 2005:22).
The second aspect is that Tipu was a devotee of new, scientific, and innovative concepts. He enthusiastically accepts the novel ideas for the welfare of his subjects’ human beings. In fact, his aims and ideas are very high and he wants to use them for the welfare of his people and a new generation. Thus, he introduced a series of modernizations or innovations for the welfare of his people.
“That’s why he boosts industry, agriculture, trade, and commerce for the said object, which provided Mysore State the glory, sound economy, prosperity and respectable place in Indian history”.
The third aspect, Actually Tipu is a philanthropist ruler. He wanted to make his state modern on the basis of the European model. Therefore, he launched many schemes in his kingdom like the reorganization of a Board of Admirably, issue of new coinage, ban on the use of liquor, reform of the calendar, experiments in commerce, changing names of cities and towns, novel revenue and judicial conventions.
The fourth aspect, Tipu also gave importance to trade. He encouraged trade and commerce in his state. He wanted to make his state a ‘trading nation’ on European model. He established a trading
company in order to get economic prosperity through trade and commerce. He encouraged people to export many goods like pepper, chilies, sandalwood, cardamom, and rice. He established factories in foreign countries at Muscat, Pegu, Cutch, and Jiddah. Even he established trade relations with China, France, Turkey, and Iran.
Fifth aspect, Tipu had modern sensibility or awareness. He knew that to depend on other nations for goods is nothing but slavery. In fact, he wanted to become his state as a self-sufficient state. When he was sending a delegation to France, he ordered them to bring everything including new techniques, inventions, machines, etc. He further asked Mir Sadiq to bring silkworms and eggs from the island of Jezeriah Diraz near Muscat along with the five or six men who would rear up and look after the worms. (P.21)
 The sixth aspect, Tipu was a commercial-minded ruler. He wanted that his government should step into the trading agency for sake of money. According to him, that money is essential for buying glass, guns, and cannons. He did not want to beg and borrow silk from the Chinese like a poor person. He knew very clearly that his land is rich and full of ivory, sandalwood, and forests and we didn’t get anything if we sell these things to an individual trader.
Tipu was also an ambitious ruler whose desire was to change the face of India. So, he wanted to import things and persons from abroad. He said to Osman Khan when he returned then he carried ten thousand French soldiers and French craftsmen who could make guns, cannons, and pistols (P.24). It clearly means that Tipu wanted to make himself well-equipped with the latest weapons.
He wanted to make his land a professional land. Then he makes a provisional list of professionals which included a doctor, a surgeon, a smelter, a carpenter, a weaver, a blacksmith, a locksmith, a
cutter, a watchmaker, and new varieties of trees, flowers, bushes, etc. along with them two gardeners from Versailles to look after Lal Bagh Garden.
The seventh aspect, Tipu was business minded. He looked at business opportunities on every side. He had already sent a delegation to Istanbul last year under the chair of Akbar Ali Khan to meet His Holiness the Caliph of All Islamic Nations for the said purpose. That trip got a memorable success. He knew that there is a great demand for ivory, sandalwood, and other products in Turkey, Arabia, and Iran. Even the Imam of Muscat has fallen in love with the sandalwood and colors of this country. So, the Imam of Muscat asked Tipu to build a factory for his products there (P.24). All these illustrations showed Tipu’s interest in business, trade, industry, and soldiers. He knew that Europe styles herself wonderful due to new ideas, inventions, and machines.
The eighth aspect, Tipu was a passionate patriot. He loves his homeland very much. He never compromised with his ideas unlike the other rulers of India. Other states or kingdoms accepted happily the British slavery but he declined. So, Independence and sovereignty of the state is the most important value or doctrine of Tipu’s life.
 He tried to make unity between the Nizam and the Marathas when he fought against the British army. But he could not get a positive response from them.
 Tipu had friendly relations with the French, Zamam Shah of Afghanistan, and Abdul Hameed of Turkey. Due to this B. Sheikh Ali says, “But Tipu’s relations with the French, the Afghans, and the Turks show his grand designs to agony the English”).
 It is very important to note that he never makes allies with foreigners against any Indian power. To be honest, Tipu’s foreign contacts are a symbol of modernity.
The ninth aspect, Tipu was the first Indian monarch who tried to make his state a Republic. He was a very wise and sensible ruler. So, he developed trade and commerce and encouraged his people to follow the path of progress and science like the Europeans. He built up factories in foreign and also developed industries in his state. His vision was to make his people progressive and prosperous. Even he tried to give economic stability and awareness to his state. He introduced many economic experiments, and improvements in his administration, destroys the traditional feudalistic system, and developed industries in his state. Because his main object was to make his state a utopia. He honestly tried his best in this direction but his untimely death resulted in not fulfilling his dream of the Republic. This is a rare and wonderful example of Tipu’s modernity. Tipu was a disciple of modernity who had a modern view, sensibility, and vision.
In fact, Modernity is a new value system, which implies innovations. It is nothing but a moment of awareness of progressive thought but purposes at a decent standard of living for all the people. So, modernity is imitated through the various actions, missions, ideas, and projects of Tipu Sultan, the ‘Tiger of Mysore’.
Elements of Experimental Modernism in Brecht's Galileo
Bertolt Brecht belonged to the school of epic theatre. This theatre is non-conventional and against the Aristotelian theory of theatre. Brecht used many elements of experimental modernism in his play Galileo. Brecht used epigraph at the head of each scene. Each epigraph at the head of each scene gives brief clues about what is going to happen in each scene. This implied meaning in each epigraph prevents the readers from harboring suspense and anticipation about the forthcoming and upcoming events.
Actually, Brecht wanted to produce what he calls the alienation effect. He wanted to make the audience feel that they are watching a drama and was not in favor of presenting larger than life reality.
Modernity aspects
“The fundamental theme of the play is not the historical Galileo and his contributions to astronomy or mechanics, but the complex relationship between science, politics, and society”.
Some critics say, the play Galileo employs the seventeenth-century scientist name Galileo as its protagonist. Hence the protagonist Galileo does not have the level of heroic stature and selected nobility. The central character is not seen as fraught to retain his heroic self-respect or dignity like Antigone and Oedipus. Rather Galileo degenerates from the middle level of moral heroism by revoking what he had requested scientifically and logically.
However, Brecht obeys closely the biographical facts yet he intentionally attributes some unhistorical motivations and beliefs to his main character and enticements an anachronistic depiction of the sociological situation of early 17th century Italy.
The greatest modernist breakthrough achieved by Galileo is the invention of the chronological ordering of the events in the plot. In Galileo, actions are not organized chronologically. There is no fundamental connection between the preceding and the succeeding events in the plot.
 Importance changes present Galileo as a determined advocate of the lower classes, as explained by the many categorical links between scientific and social progress. So, the Copernican solar system means not only an astronomical, but also a social revolution: whereas before the pope was the fixed center of the social order, now everybody is of equal importance:” …” and the earth is rolling cheerfully around the sun, and the fishwives, merchants, princes, cardinal and even the pope are rolling with it. The universe has lost its center instant and woken up to find it has countless centers so that each one can now be seen as the center or none at all. “This has also metaphysical significances, since the revaluation of the individual cause’s devaluation of Gods, authority. When Galileo's friend Sagredo asks him where is God, the place might be in this new solar system, Galileo’s answer is:” within ourselves and nowhere.”
Unnecessary to say, the historical Galileo held no such views. Brecht appears to have chosen Galileo’s contemporary Francis Bason as a model, whose materialistic concept of nature and the empirical scientific method are also imitated in the strong illumination metaphors used throughout the play.
Monotonous seeing is exemplified by the scientists in the Aristotelian convention, who decline to look through Galileo’s telescope because they rather trust the traditional written dogmas than their own eyes.
Galileo’s final monologue supports progress confidence and emphasizes science’s beneficial contributions to mankind. The appropriate words to Andrea are:” I still believe that this is a new age. It may look like a bloodstained old harridan, but if so, that must be the way new ages look. When light breaks in it do so in the furthest darkness. While a few places are the scene of the most enormous discoveries, which must contribute massively to humanity’s resources for happiness, great areas of this world still lie individually in the dark. In fact, the darkness has actually deepened there.
Surveying from start to end Galileo gives every impression of becoming a modernist play, which argues separately the illusionist convention. It stands as a revolutionary victory in the 20th-century history of modernist plays.